WEEK #4 OVERVIEW

Part A continues the description of individual motivation by emphasizing motivational methods and programs. First, you will learn how motivation is enhanced through job design, including job enrichment, the job characteristics model, and self-managing work teams. A description is then presented of a structured program of organizational behavior modification, followed by suggestions for everyday application of behavior modification. Then comes an explanation of motivation through recognition, including reward and recognition programs. We will also examine how financial incentives, including stock options, are used for employee motivation. Later in this section, there are suggestions on how to choose appropriate motivational approaches.

The purpose of Part B is to help you better understand and manage both conflict and stress.
We will review an explanation of the nature of and leading causes of workplace conflict, followed by explicit information about conflict management. The second half of Part B discusses work stress in terms of its nature, causes, and consequences. In addition, we explore how individuals and organizations can better manage stress, and improve well being.

QUIZ #2 Alert Link to Quiz #2 Download Quiz #2 (MS Word Document) and save it to your hard drive. To download the quiz, RIGHT mouse click on the link above, then choose SAVE TARGET AS, save to your local hard drive. Open the quiz with your wordprocessor, follow the instructions on the quiz and save it again to your hard drive. Finally, submit the quiz to me as an e-mail attachment to bialek@msoe.edu, SUBJECT: MS344i Quiz 2 The quiz is due by Monday 4/7/2003.

A major strategy for enhancing motivation is to make the job so challenging and the workers so responsible that they are motivated simply by performing the job. Of course the premise put forth by this opening sentence is extreme and may not have true pragmatic application. Nevertheless, challenge and responsibility are two key aspect that motivate many people under the right circumstance. Part A of this week's lecture will explore motivation from this perspective.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment refers to making a job more motivational and satisfying by adding variety, responsibility, and managerial decision making. People are usually willing to work harder at tasks they find enjoyable and rewarding. A survey documented the fact that exciting, high-impact jobs appeal to MBAs.

Characteristics of an enriched job. The following characteristics contribute to job enrichment: (a) direct feedback, (b) client relationships, (c) new learning, (d) control over scheduling, (e) unique experience, (f) control over resources, (g) direct communication authority, and (h) personal accountability.

Guidelines for implementing job enrichment. Leaders should ask if the workers and/or group members need or want more responsibility, variety, and growth. Group members and workers with a strong need for growth are more likely to respond to an opportunity for performing enriched work. Brainstorming is useful in pinpointing changes that will enrich jobs for those who want enrichment. (Learn more about how to conduct brainstorming by following this link: http://www.demon.co.uk/mindtool/brainstm.html)

The Job Characteristics Model

Job enrichment has been expanded to the job characteristics model, a method of job design that focuses on the task and interpersonal demands of a job. Five measurable characteristics of jobs lead to improvement in employee motivation, satisfaction, and performance: (1) skill variety, (2) task identity, (3) task significance, (4) autonomy, and (5) feedback.

These five core job characteristics related to three psychological states: skill variety, task identity, and task significance. A redesigned job must lead to these psychological states for workers to achieve positive job outcomes. The model combines the five characteristics into the Motivating Potential Score (MPS).

Self-Managed Work Teams

A dominant trend in job design is to organize workers into teams with considerable authority to direct themselves. A self-managed work team is a formally recognized group of employees who are responsible for an entire work process or segment that delivers a product or serve to an internal or external customer. Work teams can be considered group job enrichment. The purposes of self-managed work teams are to increase productivity and quality, reduce cycle time, and respond more quickly to a changing marketplace.

Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) is the application of reinforcement theory for motivating people in work settings. Positive reinforcement is usually favored over punishment in such programs.

Steps in a Formal OB Mod Program

An OB Mod program is outlined below, and proceeds as follows:

Rules for Application of OB Mod

Managers can apply behavior modification outside of a company program by
following certain time-tested rules.

1. Choose an appropriate reward or punishment.

2. Reinforce the behavior you really want to encourage.

3. Supply ample feedback.

4. Rewards should be commensurate with the good deed.

5. Schedule rewards intermittently.

6. Rewards & punishments should follow the observed behavior closely in time.

7. Make rewards visible to the recipient and others.

8. Change the reward periodically.

Although part of positive reinforcement, recognition is such a potentially powerful motivator that it merits separate attention. Also, reward and recognition programs are standard practice.

Recognition is a strong motivator because it is a normal human need to crave recognition. Also, most workers feel they do not receive enough recognition. In surveys, workers welcome praise as much as a paycheck. (But praise is not a substitute for pay.) Employees tend to regard pay as an entitlement, whereas recognition is perceived as a gift. To appeal to the recognition need of others, identify a meritorious behavior and then recognize that behavior with an oral, written, or material reward. Use OB Mod rules. Here are several more key points:

1. Feedback is an essential part of recognition.

2. Praise is one of the most powerful forms of recognition.

3. Reward and recognition programs should be linked to organizational goals.

4. Employee input into what type of rewards and recognition are valued is useful.

5. It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of the reward and recognition program.

Financial incentives are another application of behavior modification, yet financial
incentives predate OB Mod.

Linking Pay to Performance. Financial incentives are more effective when they are contingent upon good performance. Tie employee pay to specific performance criteria and link it directly to value-adding business results. Managers and human resource specialists continue to fine-tune methods of linking pay to individual performance. Base pay is calculated according to a variety of factors including interpersonal skills, job knowledge, and teamwork. Merit pay runs from 5 percent to 15 percent of total compensation. A meta-analysis suggests that merit
pay may be more related to quantity than quality.

Stock Options. Stock ownership can be motivational because employees participate in the financial success of the firm as measured by its stock price. Stock options give employees the right to purchase a certain number of company shares in the future at a specified price, generally the market price on the day the grant is made. If the stock rises in value, you can purchase it at a discount. Or, your option can "go under water." Starbucks employees participate widely in options. The true impact of stock options is difficult to evaluate because many firms that offer options also offer exciting work. When the stock prices plunges, options have zero, or even, negative motivational value.

Gainsharing. Gainsharing is a formal program of allowing employees to participate
financially in the productivity gains they have achieved. Gainsharing is based on positive reinforcement and recognizes the motivational impact of money. Rewards are distributed to employees after productivity improves as a result of their suggestions (usually dealing with labor savings).

The second element of gainsharing is employee involvement. Managers can establish a mechanism that actively solicits, reviews, and implements employee suggestions about productivity improvement. A committee screens the suggestions.
Gainsharing Inc. contends that most companies will achieve productivity increases of between 10-30 percent within 30 to 90 days after implementing gainsharing. Lincoln Electric is often cited as an ideal example of the benefits of gainsharing. A field study in another company showed that gainsharing can make a long-term contribution to productivity improvement and improve peer communications. Gainsharing may have a future also in service firms.

Problems Associated with Financial Incentives

Workers may not agree with managers about the value of their contributions. Financial incentives can pit individuals and groups against each other, leading to unhealthy competition rather than teamwork. Financial rewards may focus the attention of workers too much on the reward and not on the joy of accomplishment. Rewards are sometimes seen as bribes. Pfeffer explains that people do work for money, but they work even more for meaning in their lives.

In reality, workers at all levels want a combination of internal rewards and financial rewards along with other external rewards such as praise. The ideal combination is to offer exiting work, combined with enough money so they are not preoccupied with matters such as compensation. Consider also that high compensation is necessary to attract talented workers.

In this and the our lecture notes from Week #3, thirteen approaches to understanding and enhancing motivation have been presented. A fruitful approach to choose an effective motivation theory or program is for the leader to carefully diagnose the situation. The manager then applies a motivational approach that appears to match the interests, concerns, deficits, or missed opportunity. An example would be that in working with members of the contingent workforce, appeal to their needs for security by offering employee benefits.

Conflict Frames

Conflict refers to the opposition of persons or forces that gives rise to some tension. It occurs when two or more parties perceive mutually exclusive goals, values, or events. The type of conflict people enter into depends somewhat on how they define, perceive, or frame a situation in which disagreement exists. A conflict frame is the lens through which disputants view a conflict situation.

1. Relationship versus task refers to the difference in the extent to which the people in conflict focus on the relationship aspects of a conflict.

2. Emotional versus intellectual refers to the degree of attention the opposing parties pay to the affective components of a dispute.

3. Cooperate versus win refers to the degree to which the disputants share the blame for the conflict.

Sources and Antecedents of Conflict

Managers spend about 20 percent of their work activities directly or indirectly
resolving conflict. The sources, antecedents, or causes of conflict are numerous,
and the list is dynamic.

Perceived adverse changes. One example is downsizing, the laying off of
workers to reduce costs and increase efficiency. Survivors may suffer from
guilt, anger, and bereavement as they feel sorry for departed workers.

Line versus staff differentiation. Line and staff workers may conflict when the
line manager perceives that the staff professional is attempting to heavily influence his or her decisions. The loyalty staff professionals have to their discipline can also create conflict.

Sexual harassment. Being harassed creates conflict. Sexual harassment is
generally defined as unwanted sexually oriented behavior in the workplace that results in discomfort and/or interference with the job. In quid pro quo harassment, the employee's submission to or rejection of unwanted advances or conduct is used as the basis for a tangible employment action about the employee. Hostile working environment harassment occurs when someone in the workplace creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. What constitutes this type of harassment can be highly subjective, for example, the highly publicized "Seinfeld Case" that occurred at Miller Brewing. If you're not familiar with the issues related to this case, investigate the following:

Brief description:http://www.fklaborlaw.com/sexual-harassment-rights-accused.htm

Case citation: Mackenzie v. Miller Brewing Co., Wisc. Ct. App. 2/22/00

U. S. Supreme Court rulings continue to shape the meaning of sexual harassment. In Oncale vs. Sundowner, same-sex harassment was considered actionable. In Burlington Industries vs. Ellert, the Court ruled that mere threats of harassment make the employer liable. However, an affirmative defense is that the company tried to prohibit and remedy sexual harassment. In Faragher vs. Boca Ration, it was ruled that a company is liable for harassment even if unaware of the problem. At least 50 percent of women perceive they have been harassed, often resulting in problems of well-being. Racial and ethnic harassment is also a workplace problem.

Competing work and family demands. Work-family conflict occurs when the individual has to perform multiple roles: worker, spouse, and, often, parent. A meta-analysis found a negative relationship among all forms of work-family conflict and both job and life satisfaction. Recognizing this problem, many companies offer programs to help reduce work-family conflict.

Personal dispositions and personality clashes. People who are rude, aggressive, inconsiderate, hostile, or intensely pessimistic readily enter into conflict. Rudeness and incivility engender counter-reactions. A personality clash is an antagonistic relationship between two people based on differences in personal attributes, preferences, interests, values, and styles.

Conflict in the right amount improves performance, while too little or too much conflict can decrease performance. Functional conflict occurs when the interests of the organization are served as a result of the dispute or disagreement. Dysfunctional conflict occurs when a dispute or disagreement harms the organization. Functional conflict improves performance through such means as improving motivation and creativity. Dysfunctional conflict can divert time and energy away from reaching important goals. Many of the negative consequences take place because conflict leads to anger. Sabotage and workplace violence are two such problems, with workplace homicide being a leading cause of workplace death. Extreme acts of violence are usually preceded by signs such as screaming and verbal threats. Organizational forces can sometimes trigger unstable employees into violence.

Stimulating the Right Type of Conflict within Teams

The right type of conflict may be as important as the amount in enhancing performance. C-type conflict focuses on substantive, issue-related differences.

A-type conflict focuses on personalized, individual-oriented issues.

C-type conflict is functional because it requires teams to engage in activities that foster team effectiveness, such as critically examining alternatives.

Teams that engage in mostly C-type conflict (a) encourage creativity, (b) allow for open communications, and (c) emphasize integration-making full use of all team
members.

Conflict Management Approaches

As shown in Figure 1 below, the five style of managing conflict are based on a combination of satisfying one's own concerns (assertiveness) and satisfying the concerns of others (cooperativeness).

Forcing or Competitive is a desire to win one's own concerns at the expense of the other party.

Accommodation favors satisfying the other's concerns without taking care of
one's own.

Compromise or Sharing reflects moderate but incomplete satisfaction to both parties.

Collaboration reflects a desire to fully satisfy the desires of both parties. It is
based on the philosophy of win-win, the belief that after conflict has been resolved, both sides should gain something of value.

Avoidance is a combination of uncooperative and unassertive, and reflects an
indifference to the concerns of either party.

Figure 1. Conflict Management Approaches

Conflict Resolution Methods

Styles of dealing with conflict are closed related to methods of resolving conflict. Figure 2 below illustrates various conflict resolution methods and conditions under which they are most effective.

Confrontation and problem solving. A widely applicable approach to resolving conflict is confrontation and problem solving, a method of identifying the true source of conflict and resolving it systematically. The confrontation approach is gentle and tactful rather than combative and abusive. The collaborative style meshes with confrontation and problem solving. The six steps for confrontation and problem solving are

(1) awareness,

(2) the decision to confront,

(3) the confrontation,

(4) determining the cause of the conflict,

(5) determining the outcome and further steps, and

(6) follow-through.

Confront, contain, and connect for anger. To resolve conflict with angry
people, do as follows: Confront the agitated worker. Contain the angry worker
by moving him or her out of sight and earshot. Connect by asking open-ended
questions to get at the real issues behind an outburst.

Structural methods. A structural method of resolving conflict emphasizes
juggling work assignments and reporting relationships so that disputes are
minimized. Having control over all the resources one needs to accomplish the job prevents conflict. Exchanging members among units lowers conflict. An appeals procedure is standard practice. Management in some firms maintains an open-door policy in which any employee can bring a gripe to its attention without checking with the immediate manager.

Figure 2. Conflict Resolution Methods

Conflict is a major contributor to stress, the mental and physical condition that results from a perceived threat that cannot be dealt with readily. Stress is therefore an internal response to a state of activation. Today's workforce is more at risk than ever for psychological, physical and behavioral health problems. The cost of job stress in the United States and Canada is estimated at $230 billion annually.

Cybernetic Theory of Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Organizations

The cybernetic theory of stress, coping, and well-being in organizations views stress as a discrepancy between an employee's perceived state and desired state. Stress occurs when the discrepancy is perceived as important. Stress is damaging, so the person copes by attempting to reduce the negative impacts of stress on well-being. The total stress a person experiences is determined by all his or her discrepancies.

Symptoms and Consequences of Work Stress

Symptoms occur to cope with a stressor, any force creating the stress reaction. The symptoms lead to strain, or an adverse impact on employee health and well-being. These symptoms can include a host of physiological, emotional, and behavioral reactions including those listed in the Self-Assessment on page 145 of DuBrin's text. You are not required to complete the assessment for this class, but you may find it informative. Take a closer look! People require the right amount of stress to keep them mentally and physically alert. Uncomfortable and distasteful stress lowers job performance. A person's perception of an object usually determines whether it will be a negative or positive stressor.

Prolonged exposure to stress may lead to burnout, a pattern of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion in response to chronic job stressors. The same syndrome is sometimes regarded as work exhaustion. Personal accomplishment finally diminishes as a result of burnout. Often times burnout is attributed to a mismatch between the nature of the job and the nature of the person holder, in areas such as work overload and lack of rewards.

Factors Contributing to Work Stress

A host of individual and organizational factors contribute to work stress.

Factors within the individual. The more significant life change you have to cope with in a short period of time, the greater the probability of a stress disorder. Most people have self-monitoring capabilities that give us clues when we are stressed. The following URL takes you to a stress level inventory that can verify your level of stress. Take a look at: http://www.4therapy.com/consumer/assessment/taketest.php?&uniqueid=22&

Type A people-those who are hostile, aggressive, impatient, and suffer from hurry sickness-create stress for themselves. Such people are also prone to cardiovascular disorders. An external locus of control predisposes people to job stress because they do not believe they can control the stressor in their environment. Negative lifestyle factors predispose a person to stress. Such factors include poor exercise and eating habits and heavy consumption of caffeine, alcohol, and other drugs. Being pessimistic predisposes one to stress, whereas being optimistic helps ward off stress. If you like doing inventories and self-assessment, take a closer look at, "Are You an Optimist?" on page 148 of DuBrin's text. It's kind of fun!

Adverse organizational conditions. High stress levels created by adverse organizational conditions lead to many negative symptoms. According to the job demands-job control model, workers experience the most stress when the demands of the job are high, yet they have little control over the activity. Role overload is a major contributor to work stress. Worrying about being on the "hit list" is another job stressor. Role underload can also be a problem.

A long-recognized contributor to work stress is role conflict, having to choose between competing demands or expectations. The four types of role conflict are intrasender (two opposing objectives), intersender (two people giving incompatible directions), interrole (two roles in conflict), and person-role (values clash with employer expectations). Another role-related stressor is role ambiguity, a condition in which the job holder receives confusing or poorly defined expectations. Information may be incomplete and confusing about expected performance, behavior, and outcomes.

Another contributor to stress and burnout is emotional labor, having to modify or fake emotions, at least facial expression, when dealing with customers. Repetitive strain injury (RSI) can lead to mental stress as well as physical pain. The emotional stress can lead to more muscle tension and intensify the physical pain. Finally, cultural diversity can be a stressor including competition for attention and resources and trying to be politically correct.

Organizations are actively involved in stress management. Creating a high-demand, high-control job helps prevent stress. So does providing emotional support to employees, and establishing a wellness and physical fitness program. One study showed that employees who feel they had their boss's support suffered only half as much illness in 12 months as those who felt they lacked such support. A wellness program is a formal organization-sponsored activity to help employees stay well and avoid illness. Such a program might include a class in stress management, and another in smoking cessation.

A growing practice is providing on-site massages to help relieve muscle tension. An emerging approach to help employees combat stress is to give them the opportunity to nap on company premises. Napping is one of the most effective methods of treating and preventing stress. "You snooze, you win!" Imagine that? Can you nap on your job? Can you surf the Internet when you have spare time? Organizations committed to the psychological and physical health of its employees or members are more effective than those that neglect these aspects.

Techniques individuals can use to manage stress can be divided into three categories: control, symptom management, and escape.

• Control includes getting emotional support, good work habits and time management, including less procrastination. Gaining control is important because being out of control is a major stressor.
  
  
• Among the dozens of symptom management techniques is exercise. Another is the relaxation response, a general-purpose method of learning to relax by yourself.
  
  
• Escape methods of stress management are actions and reappraisals of situations that provide escape from the stressor. Eliminating the stressor is the most effective escape technique.
  

THERE ARE NO ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS FOR WEEK #4

End of notes for Week #4